Poets use poetic techniques to convey the meaning and the intended message to their audience efficiently and effectively. One should analyze the diction used in poems to identify the techniques. You will find a range of literary devices explained below which are very often used in poems.
A simile takes place as a result of similarities that exist between two different items or persons. Usually, the subject matter in discussion is compared with something else for their similarities at one point and it is a statement of likeness between two things.
The likeness may relate to physical aspects or feelings as applicable. In a simile, the perceived likeness is explicit. The purpose of doing so is often to highlight such characteristics in discussion.
1.“He sways his head from side to side,
With movements like a snake; ”
(From the poem “Macavity : The Mystery Cat” by T.S. Eliot)
2.“I wandered lonely as a cloud”
(From the poem “I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud” : by William Wordsworth)
3. “The first wine is pink,
Is sweet as a tender child: ”
(From the poem “The Lazy One” : by Pablo Neruda , translated by Reggie Siriwardena)
The words such as “like” and “as” co-exist with simile and they can be considered as clue words.
A metaphor is a transfer of a quality or feeling of something or someone to another. Just as in a simile, it also does a comparison between two persons or objects. In a metaphor, the perceived likeness is implicit.
The purpose of a metaphor is to increase the expressiveness of the language. It enriches the intended meaning. However, a metaphor does not use the words such as “like” , “as”.
The difference between a simile and metaphor is explained with the following examples.
Simile - He fought as a lion.
Metaphor - He was a lion in the battle field.
“Snared by an age-old magic
Of a love no words can tell”
(From the poem “Island Spell” : by Wendy Whatmore)
Another classic example of a metaphor is the “Poison Tree” in the poem “A Poison Tree” by William Blake which is the central metaphor.
A symbol stands in the palace of another. Usually, an object, person or a place is used to represent an abstract idea to convey the idea more effectively. Different objects or persons may represent different concepts in different contexts. However, there are also established symbols in the field of literature or society at large.
Following are some of the conventional symbols.
Dove - symbol of peace
Lion - Symbol of bravery
Darkness - Symbol of death
Rose - Symbol of beauty
For example, there are many symbols in the poem “Blowing in the Wind” by Bob Dylan.
Roads - symbolic of experience
Dove - symbolic of peace
Cannon- balls - war
Mountains - obstacles
Sky - Symbol of freedom
Look up - expectations or hopes
Imagery is a picture that the writer draws in the mind of the reader. Stimulating the senses of the reader through effective language is a better way of expression. Effective use of language to appeal to different senses creates different types of mental imagery.
Visual imagery - language that creates images in the reader’s mind.
“My foe outstretched beneath the tree”
(From the poem “A Poison Tree” by William Blake.)
This line generates a comprehensive visualization of the tragic death scene of the enemy in the poem “A Poison Tree” by William Blake
Auditory imagery - language that creates sounds in the reader’s mind.
eg. -“He gives his harness bells a shake” in the poem “Stopping by woods on a Snowy Evening” by Robert Frost creates the feeling of the sounds of the bells in the reader’s mind.
“The buzz -saw snarled and rattled in the yard”
(From the poem “Out Out” by Robert Frost)
“Snarled” and “rattled” creates the sound of the machinery in the minds of the reader.
Olfactory imagery - language that gives the reader a feeling of a smell.
“Take him away, he stinks of kerosene”
(From the prose “The Stench of Kerosene” by Amrita Pritam.)
It creates the odor of kerosene in the reader’s mind and according to the story, it represents the guilty consciousness of the speaker.
Gustatory imagery - language that gives the reader a feeling of a particular taste.
In “The Thakur’s Well” by Premchand, the scene when Jokhu who is compelled to drink water that’s turned bad, the water is described using two adjectives “dirty” and “stinking” which helps the reader feel the bad taste of the water.
“When she reached home, Jokhu, with the lota at his mouth, was drinking that dirty, stinking water. “
Tactile imagery - language that creates a feeling of touch in the reader’s mind.
Kinesthetic imagery - language that creates a feeling of movement of something.
“Tossing their heads in sprightly dance.”
From the poem “I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud” by William Wordsworth.
Organic imagery - language that creates an internal sensation in the reader’s mind. Such as hunger or thirst.
Irony happens when the writer literally suggests the opposite of what is meant. Usually, irony creates amusement or humor. There are instances where tragic irony occurs. It depends on the purpose of the writer.
There is a classic example of irony with grim humour in the novel “The English Teacher” by R.K. Narayan.
“The doctor came at midday. He seemed cheered that it was typhoid. He beamed on all of us and joked continuously. “I like typhoid,” he said. “It is the one fever which goes strictly by its own convention and rules….”
Sarcasm is a form of irony. Sarcasm is a harsh way of creating irony. Here the writer mocks something or someone with the intention of hurting their sentiments. The writer intentionally ridicules a circumstance or a person.
In the poem “Nobody” by Emily Dickinson, the poet mocks “Somebody” using the following expressions.
How dreary – to be – Somebody!
How public – like a Frog –
To tell your name – the livelong June –
To an admiring Bog !
Satire is intended at exposing folly or lapse of people and institutions and absurdity of situations.
In the poem “Secretariat” by Anne Ranasinghe, the speaker speaks with a satiric tone about the typical Sri Lankan government office and the poem starts with the following lines.
“So this is the summit of a man’s career
Two hardboard walls, constructed shabbily
A naked bulb and rotting wooden floor;
No windows but instead a door
Half hidden by a broken metal screen
From which tattered piece of green
Curtain blows.”
Poems can have many different rhyming schemes and they provide a rhythm to a poem. Rhyming helps to stress the meanings through the sound patterns in the scheme.
There are different types of rhyming. When the words at the end of the lines rhyme, it is end rhyming. When a word in the middle of a line rhymes with an end word or another middle word of the next line, it is called internal rhyming or middle rhyming.
I hear a sudden cry of pain!
There is a rabbit in a snare:
Now I hear the cry again,
But I cannot tell from where.
(From the poem “The Snare” by James Stephens.)
The last word of each line rhymes with another in a pattern which creates a musical rhythm. It makes the poem appealing to the reader.
Alliteration is the occurrence of the same sound repetitively at the beginning of connected words in sentences. It creates a sound effect and calls for the attention of the reader. Alliteration is also known as “Initial Rhyme”.
When the vowel sounds are repeated, it is known as assonance. When consonants are repeated, it is known as consonance.
(From the poem “Anthem for Doomed Youth” by Wilfred Owen)
The repetition of “t” here is a good example of alliteration.
Onomatopoeia occurs when the sound of a word suggests its meaning. This can happen by using a single word or a collection of words carefully chosen for the purpose.
The sound of the words “hack” and “rack” in the following lines express the meaning of the words; cut off or torture. It brings out the idea of violence.
“O if we but knew what we do
When we delve or hew-
Hack and rack the growing green ! ”
(From the poem “Binsey Poplars” by G.M. Hopkins)
Repetition can happen on many different levels. Single words , phrases or whole sentences or lines can be repeated to gain emphasis for the repeated lines. Repetition also creates rhythm.
And miles to go before I sleep,
And miles to go before I sleep.
The above two lines repeated at the end of the poem “Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening” by Robert Frost is a good example of a successful repetition. The stress put on the repeated last two lines suggest that the speaker has come to the point of sudden realization at this point of the poem. Here the poet emphasizes the importance of the notion of responsibility in the mind of the speaker of the poem.
Hyperbole is also known as exaggeration. It is an excessive overstatement consciously made by a writer to be very expressive in writing.
“They stretch’d in never-ending line”
“Ten thousand saw I at a glance”
When William Wordsworth in his poem “I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud”, wishes to emphasize that there were plenty of daffodils to be seen, he uses the above expressions to impress the reader. They are a good example of Hyperbole.
Hyperbole is also a representation made to a greater or less or better or worse than what something really is.
Transfer of human attributes to non-living things, concepts or animals is known as personification. A writer using personification intends to be effectively expressive in his or her writing by treating inanimate things as human.
In Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening by Robert Frost, the little horse is personified as follows, to establish the bond between the narrator and the horse.
He gives his harness bells a shake
To ask if there is some mistake.
Personification is a process of giving life and personality non-living things by attributing the characteristics of human beings. The horse is referred to with a third person pronoun “he” and the horse seems to ask a question from the narrator here.
Using a day-today language in formal writing is known as colloquialism. Informal or slang expressions also can be considered under this category. The writer may highlight the difference between the two languages to express his or her message to the audience.
In the poem “Nobody” by Emily Dickinson, the poet uses a simple conversational language to show intimacy between the two parties in conversation.
I’m Nobody! Who are you ?
Are you – Nobody – too ?
Then there’s a pair of us!
Don't tell! they'd banish us– you know!
It is a statement which looks contradictory on the surface but has a deeper meaning attached to it. It creates a sudden and alarming realization on the reader.
Words of two contradictory meanings are put together for a strong expression in the following lines in the poem “A Prayer for my Daughter” by W.B. Yeats.
“Out of the murderous innocence of the sea”
Similarly in the poem “Microbe” by Hilaire Belloc, has its ending lines working as a perfect paradox.
“Oh! Let us never never doubt
What nobody is sure about!”
If a writing is suggestive of more than one meaning, it creates ambiguity. Writers usually create ambiguity purposefully in order to give many interpretations to their writings. Most of the literary works are burdened with meanings when ambiguity is present.
For example, in the song “Blowing in the Wind” by Bob Dylan, what the song-writer intends to communicate with the following two constantly repeated lines is doubtful, hence they bear ambiguity.
“The answer my friend is blowing in the wind,
The answer is blowing in the wind”
One can interpret it as if the answers are already out there but people are ignorant or just pretend that they do not see them. On the other hand, one can argue that the answer is unreachable or invisible and you cannot easily find it.
Pun is a trick played with words. Usually,a pun is created when two words of similar sounds with different meanings are put together to convey a particular message.
Allusions take place when something is called to the minds of the reader using an indirect reference. These references are usually made to known sources.
For an example, in Poison Tree by Robert Frost, the symbol of the red ripe apple calls for biblical reference. It reminds of the story of Eve and Adam.
The narrator or the poet’s attitude expressed through the literary work is known as its “tone”. The tone is understood through the diction used in the poem. There can be different types of tones created in a literary work.
Ironic
Happy
Loving
Sarcastic
Similarly, one literary work can have many tones at different points.
A classic example for a poem with a sarcastic tone is the poem “Colonel Fazackereley” by Chales Causley. The entire poem is governed by the tone of sarcasm.
“Oh dear, what a pity!” said Colonel Fazack
“I don’t know his name, so I won’t call him back.’
And then with a smile that was hard to define,
Colonel Fazackerley went in to dine. ”
In a climax, the senses or emotions are expected to rise by successive steps to a level which is more impressive. Most of the time it marks a turning point and the point of highest intensity of the plot.
The poem “The Glove and the Lions” by Leigh Hunt provides a classic example to the climax in a narrative poem. The following are the last few lines of the poem.
The leap was quick, return was quick, he has regained his place,
Then threw the glove, but not with love, right in the lady's face!.
"By Heavens!" said Francis, "rightly done!" and he rose from where he sat;
"No love," quoth he, "but vanity, sets love a task like that."
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